Infectious inflammation of the lungs, in which fluid accumulates in the alveoli; the eighth most common cause of death in the United States.Most of the more than 50 different varieties of pneumonia are viral or bacterial
Pulmonary embolism
Obstruction of the pulmonary artery or one of its branches by an embolus (most often a blood clot that has been carried from the lower limbs and through the right side of the heart into the pulmonary circulation). Symptoms are chest pain, productive bloody cough, tachycardia, and rapid, shallow breathing. Can cause sudden death unless treated quickly; usual treatment is oxygen by mask, pain relievers, and anticoagulant
Bronchoscopy
Use of a viewing tube inserted through the nose or mouth to examine the internal surface of the main bronchi in the lung. Forceps attached to the tip of the tube can remove trapped objects or take samples of mucus for examination.
Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
A dangerous lung condition that can develop after severe illness or injury to the
body. Neutrophils leave the body’s capillaries in large numbers
and then secrete chemicals that increase capillary permeability.
The capillary-rich lungs are heavily affected. As the lungs
fill with the fluids of edema, the patient suffocates. Even with
mechanical ventilation, ARDS is hard to control and often
lethal.
Trachea - Bronchial tree
Trachea
-windpipe
-larynx at division forming
two primary bronchi at midthorax
-mucosa –
pseudostratified
epithelium (goblet cells)
-submucosa –
connective tissue
seromucous glands –
mucous -advantitia –
CT hyaline cartilage
Bronchial tree
-left and right primary bronchi
-formed by divisions of the trachea
-secondary bronchi (lobar)
-inside the lungs
-3 on the right
-2 on the left
-tertiary bronchi (segmental)
-fourth-order
-fifth-order
-23 orders of branching air ways
-bronchioles (under 1 mm in diameter
Cartilage:
-rings
-irregular plates
-no cartilage in bronchioles
-replaced by elastic fibers
Epithelium:
-pseudostratified (ciliated)
-columnar (ciliated)
-cuboidal in terminal bronchioles (no cilia)
Smooth Muscle:
-increases as tubes get smaller
Human Anatomy and Physiology
The respiratory zone
Respiratory Zone:
Respiratory bronchioiles
Alveoli (300 million)
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Transport of Gases
- The gas exchange through the alveoli membrane and capillaries occur by simple diffusion
- Fick's law describes transalveolar gas exchange VO2=DO2 A(PalO2-ParO2)t
- t is the transalveolar thickness
- The path lenght for diffusion includs the thickness of the alveolar epithelium and underlying basement membrane and the capillary endotheliumç
- Respiratory pigments in blood often transport O2 from the respiratory surface to the tissues but can also transfer 02 from blood into cells or act as intracellular oxygen stores such as myoglobi and neuroglobins.
- increase temperature increase dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin.
- 2-3 Diphosphoglycerate in erhythrocyte; it increase dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin.
- The rate of 02 transport by the circulatory system depends on the rate of blood flow and the O2 contents of arterial blood and venous blood.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the redox reaction so oxidation of one molecule and the reduction of another.
Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular changes.
nose and pharynx
Nose:
external nose nasal cavity
Functions:passageway for air, cleans the air, humidities, warms air, smell
along with paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for speech
Pharynx: common opening for digestive and respiratory systems
Three regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
composition of Air
The composition of normal, dry, atmospheric air is 20.95% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 78.08% nitrogen. The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 76 mmHG. the total pressure exterted by a gas mixture is equal to the sum of pressures exerted by each constituents gas ( Dalton's law)
pO2= 159.2 mmHg
pCO2= 0.003 mmHg
pN2=600.6 mmHg
Atmospheric pressure increases markedly underwater.
physical principles of gas exchange
Partial pressure: the pressure exerted by each type of gas in a mixture, dalton's law, water vapor pressure.
Diffusion of gases through liquids: concentation of gas in a liquid is determined by its partial pressure and its solubility coefficient. Henry's law
minute and alveolar ventilation
Minute ventilation : total amount of air moved into and out of respiratory system per minute. Respiratory rate or frequency : number breaths taken per minute. Anatomic dead space : part of respiratory system where gas exchange does not take place.
Alveolar ventilation : how much air per minute enters the parts of the respiratory system in which gas exchange takes place.
residual volume
volume of air remaining in respiration passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration
inspiratory reserve volume
amount of air inspired forcefully after inspiration of normal tidal volume
pulmonary capacities
Inspiratory capacity: tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume. Functional residual capacity: expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. Vital capacity: sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume . Total lung capacity: sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and residual volume.
invertebrates respiratory system
Sponges do not have speciliazed respiratory organs. Simple diffusions is enough to support all cells with oxygen. Water flows into a sponge througt side openings and out of the top opening osculum. The water current provides both food and oxygen removes waste products. All of the cells in the sponge obtain their oxygen from the circulated water. Flatwarms also do not need respiratory organs as like lungs or gills, simple diffusion occur for gas exchange.
gills lungs tracheae
There are three general types of respiratory systems, these are: gills, lungs, tracheae. a gill is an evaginated extension of the body surface that can be highly folded to increase the surface area. ıt is covered by a special structure called operculum. An internal circulatory system distrubutes blood through gill and body. The external circulation of water over the gill can be accomplished by pumping movements, by the action of surface ciliated cells, or by moving the gills through water.
a lung in contrast to gill, is an invaginated internalized surface. Lungs are ofter highly folded to maximize their surface area for gas exchange. Trachea are a third type respiratory system used by many air breathing invertebrates particulary arthropods. The trachea branch internally to form numerous small tubes whose blind ends lie close to all cells of the body. http://respiratory-system.blogspot.com
Gills often have a flow of water over their surface that is in the opposite direction to blood flow; ths is countercurrent flow. Birds are very specialized exchange system; there is a one way flow of air through the lungs but blood flow is a one-way essentially crosscurrent rather than countercurrent or co-current.
compostion of air
The composition of normal, dry atmospheric air is 20.95 percent oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 78.08% nitrogen. The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 760 mmHg.
The total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is equal to the sum of pressures exerted by each constituents gas ( dalton's law)
p02= 159.2 mmHg
pco2= 0.03 mmHg
pN2= 600.6 mmHg
Atmospheric pressure increases markedly underwater.
the atmospheric pressure decreases in high altitude. The metabolism of soil microbes and small soil animals can reduce the fractional oxygen content and elevate the carbodioxide content of soil air. Atmospheric air always contains some water vapor. Water in equilibrium with air will have the sane gas partial pressures as the saturated air but may have considrably different molar concentrations of the gases. Solubility of gases in liquid are different. solubility coefficient depends on the gas, the nature of solvent, temperature and ionic strength. Respiratory system
Diffusion is simply the movement of molecules from one region to another due to their random thermal motion.
functions
- gas exchange: oxygen enters blood and carbon dioxide leaves
- regulation of blood pH: altered by changing blood carbon dioxide levels.
- voice production: movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech
- olfaction: smell occurs when airbone molecules drawn into nasal cavity
- protection . against microorganisms by preventing entry and removing them
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